UNDERSTANDING CANCER............INS AND OUTS!!!

Cancer... wow... that sounds scary, doesn't it?

Cancer is one word that no one wants to hear. It can bring a lot of fear and confusion to many families who have a memberdiagnosed of cancer. Usually, it is more seen in adults, but in recent time, cancer has also been diagnosed in children, and even too. Very often if it happens in kids, it can be treated and cured.



Cancer is simply a disease of the cells, where bad cells multiply themselves and grow into tumors and even affect all other body organs. There are many types and kinds of cancer.

But cancer is a huge issue everywhere in the world today. It is also very technical (which means it is not easy to understand). Even though there are great advancements in cancer management, there is still a lot of research going on with cancer to find out more about it.
In the 27 countries of the European Union, records from 2008 revealed that 1.23million people died from the cancer, out of the 2.45 people diagnosed.

It was also found that in 2009, €51·0 billion (40%) of healthcare cost was for cancer.

Lung cancer had the highest economic cost (€18·8 billion, 15% of overall cancer costs), followed by breast cancer (€15·0 billion, 12%), colorectal cancer (€13·1 billion, 10%), and prostate cancer (€8·43 billion, 7%). Source: The Lancet Oncology, Early Online Publication, 14 October 2013

In this lesson we shall look at some basic information on cancer, how it develops, some signs and symptoms that we can look out for, what we can do to reduce our risk and some general information and statistics about it. There are notes on the left column which explains some technical terms.

Enjoy the lesson. 
What is cancer, and how does it develop?

The organs in our body are made up of cells. Cells don’t just appear from anywhere in our body. They are produced by an existing cell copying itself and splitting to produce two new cells. This is calledcell cycle. This cycle is tightly controlled and it only happens if the body needs to replace worn out cells. When these cells continue multiplying even when the body doesn't need them, the result is a mass or growth, also called a tumor.

Illustration of normal cells dividing



Illustration of uncontrolled multiplication of abnormal cells


These growths are considered either benign or malignant. Benign is considered non-cancerous and malignant is cancerous. Benign tumors rarely are life threatening and do not spread to other parts of the body. They can often be removed.Malignant tumors, however, often invade nearby tissue and organs, spreading the disease.

Cancer can be life threatening. The key is in early diagnosis. If cancer is diagnosed early, there is a high chance that the cancer can be completely cured.

How Does Cancer Spread to
Other Parts of the Body?

The cells within malignant tumors have the ability to invade neighboring tissues and organs, thus spreading the disease. It is also possible for cancerous cells to break free from the tumor site and enter the bloodstream, spreading the disease to other organs. This process of spreading is called metastasis.

What causes cancer?

What causes tumors? What conditions make cancer-development easy? What are the cancer risk factors? Good questions.
There is not a single answer for this, but experts know that cancer is not contagious, and isn't caused by germs, like colds or the flu. There is a kind that is caused by a virus from unsafe sexual activity, but we will look at that later. Do not be afraid of other people with cancer.

Each cancer type is different and that means the causes vary. For example, lung cancer may be caused by inhaling tobacco smoke, or toxic chemicals. Inhaling the same chemicals will not give you cervical cancer. In the same way, exposing your skin to intense sunlight can cause melanoma (skin cancer) but can never give you lung cancer. With this in mind, let us see a few general causes of cancer.

Genetic make up (inheritance)

Every person inherits some genes from their parents. If you inherit an abnormal gene (called a mutation), there is a 10% chance that, that abnormal gene will help cancer formation if the conditions are right. Specialists call this genetic predisposition. Breast cancer genes are examples of genetic predisposition. Women who carry one of these abnormal genes have a higher chance of developing breast cancer than women who do not.

Smoking and second hand smoke
Secondhand smoke is a known human carcinogen. Tobacco smoke contains more than 7,000 chemical compounds. More than 250 of these chemicals are known to be harmful, and at least 69 are known to cause cancer.


Age
No, age does NOT cause cancer (laugh)
Sometimes the changes that make a cell become cancerous in the first place take a long time to develop. There has to be a number of changes to the genes within a cell before it turns into a cancer cell. These changes can happen by accident when the cell is dividing. Or they can happen because the cell has been damaged by carcinogens and the damage is then passed on to future cells when that cell divides. The longer we live, the more time there is for genetic mistakes to happen in our cells.
The immune system
People who have problems with their immune systems are more likely to get some types of cancer. Example, people with organ transplant, people living with HIV or AIDS or even people with rare medical syndromes which affect their immunity. Some cancers such as cervical cancer and other cancers of the genital or anal area, some lymphomas, liver cancer and stomach cancer. Lymphomas are caused by viruses. This means that with a low immune system, viruses attacking your cells are able to divide without control and are more likely to develop genetic faults and develop intolymphomas.
Body weight, diet and physical activity
Many people in the western world eat too much red and processed meat and less fresh fruit and vegetables. This eating habit is known to increase the risk of cancer. Drinking alcohol can also increase the risk of developing some types of cancer.

Bacterial infection
Recent studies have shown that people who have helicobacter pylori (H pylori) infection of their stomach develop inflammation of the stomach lining, which increases the risk of stomach cancer. Infection can be treated with antibiotics, but when left for so long, it can cause damage to many vital organs and make the cells in that area vulnerable for cancer formation

Day to day environment
There are many things and chemicals all around us that may in many little ways make us cancer prone. These include the sun, natural and man made radiation, work place hazards like chemicals and smells, asbestos and others. Some of these are avoidable and some aren't.

Viruses
Viruses can help to cause some cancers. But this does not mean that these cancers can be caught like an infection. What happens is that the virus can cause genetic changes in cells that make them more likely to become cancerous.

In summary, cancer is a bit complex and no one thing is known to cause it. Keeping well, eating healthy, avoiding chemical inhaling, zero smoking, staying away from sexual activity until you are married or old enough to do so, and general personal care can largely reduce your exposure to sexually transmitted infections and minimize your risk of cancer.

Common types of cancer

There are more than 200 different types of cancer. Remember we said it is a disease of the cells? And cells make up tissues, and tissues make up organs? This means cancer can affect all your body organs: brain, blood, skin, cervix, throat, pancrease, stomach, intestines, liver, bladder, bone, testes, infact all your body organs can be affected.

Breast, lung, bowel (colorectal) and prostate - account for over half (54%) of all new cases. The most common cancer type for men is prostate cancer, whiles breast cancer is the most common in women. Below is a list of 9 most common cancer types.
Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer develops from the transitional cells which line the inside of the bladder. The common early symptom is blood in the urine. In most cases, the cancer is confined to the inside lining of the bladder. Normal bladder cancers is relatively easy to treat. If the cancer has spread into or through the muscle layer of the bladder wall then treatment is more difficult.
Lung Cancer
This forms in tissues of the lung, usually in the cells lining air passages. Smoking is the cause of most cases. There are two main types: small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. Non-small cell lung cancer types is more common.
Breast Cancer
It forms in tissues of the breast, affecting the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It largely affects women. 
Skin cancer
There are two main types are: malignant melanoma (less common but more serious; and non-melanoma skin cancer, which is very common but not so serious)
It starts with cells that make the pigment melanin. Because it forms on the skin, patients are usually the first to spot the cancers on the skin.
Pancreatic Cancer
This type is also called exocrine cancer. The cancer cells form in the tissues of the pancreas. 

Prostate Cancer
This type usually occurs in men over 50 years of age and the risk increases as you grow older. It develops in tissues of the prostate (a gland in the male reproductive system found below the bladder and in front of the rectum).
Leukemia
It is commonly known as cancer of the blood. It starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of blood cells to be produced and enter the bloodstream. 

Thyroid Cancer
Cancer experts have put them into 4 types: papillary, follicular, medullary, and anaplastic thyroid cancer. This cancer forms in the thyroid gland. The thyroid is located at the base of the throat.

The rest include Colon and Rectal Cancer, Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma, Endometrial Cancer

Cancer Testing and Diagnosis

Your doctor will analyze the symptoms, your medical history, and do a physical examination. He will make a recommendation for further tests at the lab.

At the lab, you may have x-rays and blood tests taken and possibly scans. A biopsy may also be needed. The biopsy sample is then analysed in a laboratory and the cells examined so that the doctors can see exactly what type of cancer it is and whether it is likely to grow slowly or more quickly.
Below is an example of an x-ray of a lung with cancer. 

Early diagnosis 

Thousands of people beat cancer every year. This is because when cancer’s diagnosed at an early stage, treatment is often simpler and more likely to be effective. So finding cancer early can make a real difference.

Sometimes, people avoid the doctor because they’re worried about what the doctor might find. Remember that there is massive improvement in the way cancer is tested and diagnosed. There is great improvement in treatment too, so there is no need to be frightened. It is better to see your doctor earlier rather than later.

The number of people who die from cancer has been falling overall.

Half the people diagnosed with cancer today will still be alive in five years’ time. And more than 40% will still be alive in ten years’ time. The average ten-year survival rate for cancer has doubled over the past 30 years.

For many types of cancer, including prostate cancer and melanoma skin cancer the number of people who survive has improved greatly.

Death rates from three of the UK’s most common cancers - breast, bowel and male lung cancer - have dropped to their lowest level for almost 40 years.

More than nine out of ten men with testicular cancer are now effectively cured.

And now more than three quarters of children with cancer survive, compared with only a quarter back in the 60s.

Even for those cancers where survival overall is poor, the chances of surviving are better the earlier the stage at which the cancer’s diagnosed.

So if you notice anything unusual about your body, or have one of the warning signs or symptoms, it’s really important to talk to your doctor about it. It may not be anything to worry about, in which case you will have nothing to lose. But if it’s something serious, you could have everything to gain.

Cancer signs and symptoms

When cancer's found at an early stage, treatment is often easier and more likely to be successful. So finding cancer sooner rather than later can make a real difference.

Illustration of some common areas that cancer usually forms

Symptoms of cancer vary based on the type of cancer. As cancer progresses to an advanced stage, common symptoms can include weight loss, fever, and fatigue. Look out for these:
General
An unusual lump or swelling anywhere on your body
Unusual and unexplained heavy sweating at night
Unexplained weight loss
Skin
A change in the size, shape or colour of a patch of skin
A sore that’s not healing for many weeks
Mouth
Tongue or mouth sore that’s lasted for more that 3 weeks
Throat and Neck
An unusual swelling or lump
A croaky, rough voice that is lasting for many weeks
Difficulty in swallowing
Chest
Breathlessness
Unexplained coughing for more that three weeks
Coughing up blood
Genitals
Blood in urine
Problems passing urine
(ladies) Bleeding from the vagina after sex, after menopause or between periods
Bottom Area
Blood in your bowel motions
A noticeable change or frequency in bowel motions

Treatment of Cancer

There are four standard methods of treatment for cancer: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy), and immunotherapy/biologic therapy. An oncologist will provide the patient with cancer treatment options after diagnosis of the cancer. They are the experts and can give you good advice, but ultimately, the patient has to decide what kind of treatment they want. Some treatment options can be used by itself, with surgery, with radiotherapy or together with others.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy (chemo) is a drug treatment aimed to cure cancer or relieve any symptoms cancer can cause. Chemotherapy either kills cancer cells or stops them dividing. Your doctor will discuss the best options with you and your family if you wish. This is administered in many ways: by injections, infusion (drip), continuous infusion (usually carried around as you go about your daily business), as tablets that you swallow, or as ointment to be applied to skin. There are various types of cancers and so naturally, chemo treatments will vary.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy is a way of treating or managing cancer usingradiation. It works by damaging cells in the area being treated - over half of cancer patients will receive radiotherapy at some point in their treatment. Radiotherapy can be given as teletherapy (also known as external beam radiotherapy), when a beam of radiation is aimed at the area to be treated from a machine located away from the patient.
Immunotherapy/biologic therapy
Immunotherapy is also sometimes called biologic therapy or biotherapy. It is treatment that uses certain parts of the immune system to fight diseases such as cancer. This can be done in a couple of ways: Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells or Giving your immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins, or by training the immune system to attack some part of cancer cells specifically.
CARE For Patients

It is very important that people with cancer are given full respect, love and attention to help them recover well. You should work closely with the doctor (or nurse), and assist with the treatment programme. If there is a lot of money involved and you think you need a bit of help, discuss with your doctor for charity organizations to come in. These charity organizations may also have special skills in helping people, children and families with cancer members.

Cancer Prevention Tips

Experts estimate that more than 4 in 10 cancer cases could be prevented. A few simple lifestyle changes, can drastically reduce your risk of many types of cancer.

Avoid Smoking and Exposure to Smoke
Smoking is responsible for many cancers. Second-hand smoking is also dangerous as they contain carcinogens.

Practice Sun Safety and
Recognize When Skin Changes Occur

Skin cancers are the most preventable. Skin cancer is caused by Ultra Violet Rays (UV Rays) from the sun. Wearing sunscreen, avoiding mid-day sun, wearing protective clothing when outdoors, staying away from tanning beds and general protection from direct sun rays will zero any risk of skin cancer.

Eat Fresh Fruits and Veggies
Fruits and vegetables (especially brightly coloured) contain antioxidants, which help repair our damaged cells. Studies show that dark fruits, like blueberries and grapes, may also have anti-cancer properties. Cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cauliflower appear to pack a powerful punch at preventing cancer. Other cruciferous vegetables include bok choy, Brussel sprouts and cabbage.

Limit Red Meat and Animal Fat
Animal fat increases the risk for several types of cancer, particularly colon cancer. Chose fish and poultry over red meat, as they have less fat. Fatty foods also cause obesity, which is a risk factor for many types of cancer too.
Limit Your Alcohol Intake
Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol regularly increases your risk factor for many types of cancer.  Two simple ways include: Alcohol is converted into a toxic chemical called acetaldehyde. This chemical can cause cancer by damaging DNA and stopping our cells from repairing this damage. It can damage the cells of the liver, causing a disease called cirrhosis. Cirrhosis makes you more vulnerable to liver cancer.

Exercise for Cancer Prevention
Just 30 minutes of moderate activity a day, five days a week, can have a positive effect on your health. And the more active you are, the more you can reduce your risk of cancer.
One good reason is, the sugar-regulating hormone insulin is known to lead to faster cell growth and division and to increase women's risk of breast cancer recurrence. Exercise lowers levels of this hormone.

Know Your Personal and Family Medical History
Knowing your family history of cancer is important to properly assess your risk factor for certain types of cancer. Cancers like breast, colon, ovarian, and possibly other types can be hereditary. This means it is important to know your family history, and tell your doctor if you are in a high risk family line.

Know What You're Being
Exposed to in Your Work Environment
Chemicals in the workplace may increase your risk of developing many types of cancer, including kidney cancer and bladder cancer. Avoid exposure to fumes, dust, chemicals, Gasoline, diesel exhaust, arsenic, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas, and chloromethyl. They are all carcinogens. If your parents work in environments like that, they need to talk to the employer about limiting exposure.

Be careful about unsafe Sex
Surprised? Unsafe sex can result in the infection of the human papillomairus (HPV), a known cause for cervical cancer and a risk factor for many other types of cancer. HPV is a common sexually transmitted infection that is spread through sexual, skin-to-skin contact. As a young person, it is important to stay away from early sexual activity until you are mature enough (or married) to do so. This way, you can minimise your exposure to sexually transmitted infections.

Get Screened for Cancer Regularly
Cancer screening tests can be useful not only in detecting cancer, but also helping prevent it. Tests like the colonoscopy and Pap smear can detect abnormal cellular changes before they turn cancerous. It is effective when done regularly.

Other cancer screening tests are available and may be useful for early detection, but not necessarily cancer prevention. Prostate cancer screening through digital rectal exams and PSA tests can help detect prostate cancer early. Mammograms and other imaging tools are also recommended to detect breast cancer in women. 

Cancer Factsheet

Why is cancer cases on the rise in the developing world?
Dr. Otis Brawley, a Cancer Expert explains that there are two reasons. The 'good' one is that, the population is getting healthier and people are living longer to reach 60's and 70's. The 'bad' one is that, bad habits like tobacco smoking, high calorie diets and obesity in the US and Europe are being exported to the developing world.

In the USA, 33% of all cancers are related to tobacco smoking and 28%-29% are related to obesity, high calorie intake and lack of physical activity. Source—CNN

Over 1M Americans are diagnosed with skin cancer each year.

In the UK, more than one in three people will develop cancer at some point in their lives. Every year, around 309,500 people are diagnosed with the disease.

More than 30% of cancers could be cured if detected early and treated adequately.

More than 30% of cancer could be prevented, mainly by not using tobacco, having a healthy diet, being physically active and preventing infections that may cause cancer.

One fifth of all cancers worldwide are caused by a chronic infection, for example human papillomavirus (HPV) causes cervical cancer and hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes liver cancer.

Worldwide, the 5 most common types of cancer that kill women are (in the order of frequency): breast, lung, stomach, colorectal and cervical.

About 70% of all cancer deaths occur in low and middle-income countries.

In 2008, 7.6 million people died of cancer - 13% of all deaths worldwide.

There are more than 200 types of cancers; any part of the body can be affected.

Every year in the UK, over 40,000 men are diagnosed with prostate cancer. Although it is one of the more treatable types of cancer, particularly if diagnosed early, one man dies every hour from it, says Prostate Cancer UK. (via BBC)

Cancer is expected to rise: ''The World Cancer Report, produced by the WHO's specialized cancer agency, predicts new cancer cases will rise from an estimated 14 million in 2012 to 22 million annually within two decades. Over the same period, cancer deaths are tipped to rise from 8.2 million a year to 13 million annually''Source: WHO, reported by CNN, Feb 2014.

FACTS & TIPS ABOUT MALARIA

Malaria, What is it?

Malaria is a common but deadly infection in hot, tropical areas of the world. Malaria (although rarely) can also occur in temperate climates. Malaria is caused by a parasite known as Plasmodium, injected into your body (blood) by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquitoes.

Experts say Malaria is a disease of poverty — afflicting primarily the poor who tend to live in malaria-prone rural living places that offer very little or no barriers against mosquitoes.

It is very common in many areas in Africa, because of its wet, humid and hot climate. The dampness and warmth provide perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes. These mosquitoes usually bite between dusk and dawn.
This is an illustration of a mosquito. It is a tiny insect.
The colours used here are only suggestive.

FACTS

Worldwide, 300-500 million people are infected with malaria each year, with about 2 million people dying each year.
90% of malaria deaths occur in Africa. It accounts for about 1 out of 5 childhood deaths. Malaria also contributes greatly to anaemia among children.
Malaria is both preventable and treatable, and effective preventive and curative tools have been developed. When properly treated, a patient with malaria can expect a complete recovery.

Is there a vaccine for Malaria?
For many decades, there has been intense research into finding a malaria vaccine, but there has not been any available commercially. One that is being used in the mean time is called RTS,S/AS01. Currently, there are about seven countries in Africa, including Ghana, Gabon, Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, Burkina Faso and Malawi who are participating in a clinical trial for the vaccine. Later this year (2014) the World Health Organisation (WHO) may recommend the use of the vaccine from 2015.
—Source: http://www.who.int/immunization/topics/en/

How can a person get malaria?

Malaria is caused by a parasite known as Plasmodium (say
plaz-mo-dyum ) This parasite is injected into your blood (body) by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquitoes.

When a mosquito bites an infected person, a small amount of blood is taken in which contains very tiny malaria parasites. After about a week, when the mosquito takes its next blood meal, these parasites mix with the mosquito’s 'saliva' and are injected into the another person being bitten.

Because the malaria parasite is found in red blood cells of an infected person, malaria can also be transmitted through blood transfusion, organ transplant, or the shared use of needles or syringes contaminated with blood.

It can also be passed on from mother to child in (called congenital malaria) child birth. This can be very fatal. It is important that all expecting mothers try to keep away from being infected.


Malaria risk areas
Malaria is found in more than 100 countries, mainly in tropical regions of the world including:



Large areas of Africa and Asia

Central and South America

Haiti and the Dominican Republic

Parts of the Middle East

Some Pacific islands, such as Papua New Guinea

What are the signs and symptoms of malaria?

The symptoms of malaria are not specific and can be mistaken for other diseases, it can be difficult to diagnose.

It is important that a blood test is made to be sure of what you are suffering from.

It is also vital that treatment starts within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms, to prevent progression to severe malaria or death.

The main symptoms include:

A high temperature (fever) of 38°C (100.4°F) or above (occurs at regular times)
Vomiting
Sweating and shivers (also known as rigors)
Body & Muscle pains
Headaches
Diarrhoea
In some cases, it can affect the brain or kidneys.

In many health centers in Africa and malaria prone regions, it is common to see patients with these signs and symptoms being treated for malaria even before lab results come in.

All the signs and symptoms can be similar to other infections, but if they show in particularly malaria prone countries, they are most likely to be as a result of malaria.

How to prevent malaria

People living in malaria prone regions gradually build up some immunity to the disease, because they are continuously exposed to it. If you do not usually live in a malaria-prone region, it’s even more important to take steps to prevent the disease. You can prevent malaria by following the A-B-C-D of malaria prevention.

A: Awareness of risk – be aware of what Malaria is, and how you can be infected (just like you are learning now, and share with friends and family)

B: Bite avoidance – take steps to avoid getting bitten by mosquitoes, especially between dusk and dawn.

C: Check – if you need malaria prevention tablets (especially if you live outside malaria prone regions)

D: Diagnosis – see a doctor straightaway if you have any symptoms while you’re abroad, or for a year after you come back.

The key to preventing malaria is to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes. To ensure that you should…

Use an insecticide mosquito net over your bed at night. This is a net that has been treated with chemicals that kill mosquitoes. They are safe for humans. Make sure it’s tucked in under the mattress and that there are no holes in it.

Mosquito nets come in various shapes and colours. They all do a good job as long as they are tucked in well. It is even better if they are treated with insecticide.

Spray your room often with an insecticide before you go to bed.

Wear loose-fitting tops with long sleeves, trousers and socks if you’re out at dusk or at night. You can also wear clothes that have insect repellent already in them. Light color clothing is better because the mosquitoes like dark areas.

Apply a reliable insect repellent containing diethyltoluamide (DEET) to your skin and clothes. Your local pharmacy can advice on a good one.

Cover bedroom doors and windows with fine mesh netting.
Use air-conditioning or a fan in your room, as mosquitoes are less active in cooler temperatures.

IMPORTANT: Mosquitoes thrive very well in humid, hot corners. This means an environment with constantly wet grass, collected water in cans (rubbish), puddles and stagnant water, etc will provide egg laying conditions and breed more mosquitoes. Keep doors and windows clear of things that mosquitoes can hide in. This way they cannot easily get into rooms to bite you.

TIP: These days there are insecticidal curtains that hang in doorways and can kill mosquitoes even before they get into your room 

Malaria Fact Sheet

Below are a few interesting facts on malaria...
Malaria and infants: 
Approximately 80% of all malaria deaths occur in young African children. Infants are vulnerable to malaria from approximately 3 months of age, when immunity acquired from the mother starts to wane.

Malaria prone regions:
Countries with high malaria occurrences is termed 
malaria-endemic countries

Malaria in pregnancy:
Malaria in pregnancy increases the risk of: maternal anaemia, stillbirth, spontaneous abortion, low birth weight and neonatal death.

Malaria and HIV:
These are two of the most devastating global health problems of our time. - Together they cause more than 4 million deaths a year. HIV-infected are particularly vulnerable to malaria.

Economic costs:
The economic costs of malaria in Africa is huge. Malaria is estimated to cost Africa more than USD 12 billion every year in lost GDP.

Incubation period of malaria:
The time between the infective mosquito bite and the development of malaria symptoms can range from 7 to 40 day depending on the type of Plasmodia involved. One strain of Plasmodium, called P. vivax, may have a prolonged incubation period of eight to 10 months.
Estimated malaria cases, 2010
Globally: 216 million
Africa: 174 million
Americas: 1 million
Eastern Mediterranean: 10 million
Europe: 200
South-East Asia: 28 million
Western Pacific: 2 million

Are you travelling? Read on...
Before you travel,
Whether you are visiting family or friends or you booked your holiday with a travel agency, it is important that you get information on the 'malaria or mosquito status' of your destination. Your doctor may be able to help with that information, or contact your local travel office for that information.

If this is the case, speak to your doctor, who will give you a shot or some medicines to take.

Take the recommended antimalarial drugs. These drugs can be prescribed to you by your doctor, or your local phamacy shop can recommend a good one for you. Generally speaking, these are taken from one week before you travel until one month after you return, but this can vary depending on the type of drug and the country you're visiting. Antimalarial drugs are not 100% guaranteed. You should still take the other preventive measures.(See Prevention Tips)

Study your malaria preventive tips well to avoid mosqito bites 




Drug Resistance:
A major problem is the steady increase in malaria's resistance to drugs used in both prevention and treatment.

This means that it takes longer to kill the parasites. Drugs should clear the parasites at an early stage, preventing them further maturing and reproducing. But research is showing that it becomes more difficult to eliminate the parasites from the body.

It is therefore important that you speak to your doctor before travelling.

Immediately seek diagnosis and treatment if a fever develops one week or more after entering an area where there is a malaria risk, and up to 3 months after departure.

DONDOO ZA AFYA YA MWANAMKE NA UKE/women health

Utafiti wa shirika la Afya Duniani (WHO) umebaini kwamba matatizo ya afya ya ndani ya mwanamke na maambukizi ya maradhi ya sehemu za siri kwa wanawake (gynocological disease) yanaongezeka kwa kasi kubwa sana duniani.

Takribani asilimia 85% ya wanawake wanasumbuliwa na matatizo hayo, kati ya hao asilimia
75% ni wanawake wa kiafrika na asilimia 60% kati ya hao hawajajitambua, na wengine
wanajitambua lakini wanapuuzia,au wanakosa wapi wapate msaada.
Sasa tuangalie undani wa mwanamke

Mwanamke kwa kawaida ana sura tatu (3). Je! Unazifahamu?

(i) Sura ya nje (Reception)
Wengi husema mwanamke reception; wanawake wengi hujitahidi kwa gharama zote
kuhakikisha reception yao au muonekano wao wa nje upo safi na salama muda wote.

(ii) Sura ya pili ya mwanamke nyumbani kwake
Muda wote mwanamke huwa anahakikisha nyumbani kwake panakuwa safi na wengine hata kuajiri watu, wanalipwa mshahara kazi yao ni kuhakikisha mazingira hayo ya nyumbani yanakuwa safi mara zote.

(iii) Sura ya tatu ya mwanamke ni sura yake ya ndani, uke wa mwanamke na kizazi
Hii ndiyo sehemu nyeti na muhimu sana kwa mwanamke na ndio sehemu imemfanya

mwanamke aitwe mwanamke na apewe heshima na wanaume na sehemu hiyo pia inatakiwa kuwa safi na kutazamwa muda wote. Lakini fikiria eneo hili wanawake wengi hawalithamini wala kulipa kipaumbele, na

ndio sababu imepelekea kusababisha matatizo makubwa ya kiafya katika eneo hilo.
Hebu jiulize swali; kama kweli kila siku unaweza kujicheki kwenye kioo mara kadhaa
kuhakikisha reception yako ya nje iko safi, na kila siku unafanya usafi nyumbani kwako
kuhakikisha mazingira ya nyumbani kwako ni safi na salama.

Je! Ni marangapi au ni lini umeweza kucheki afya yako ya ndani kwa mara ya mwisho au ni mara ngapi kwa mwaka unakwenda hospitali kucheki afya yako ya ndani? Au kucheki afya yako ya kizazi? Fahamu ya

kwamba maradhi yoyote kuanza taratibu na ukua kadri siku zinavyokwenda Utakubaliana na mimi kwamba eneo hilo muhimu na nyeti halijathaminiwa kwa wanawake walio wengi.
Utafiti umebaini baadhi ya vyanzo vikuu vinavyoweza kusababisha maambukizi ya maradhi ya sehemu za siri kwa wanawake wengi ni;

i) Vyoo vya kuchangia (public toilets)
Eneo hili ni hatari sana katika kusababisha maambukizi.kwa hiyo unahitaji kuwa
mwangalifu sana sehemu yoyote yenye mikusanyiko ya watu ambayo itawalazimu
(kuchangia vyoo kama; maofisini, maeneo ya soko, nyumba za ibada , sehemu za starehe,kwenye nyumba zetu tunakoishi nyumba za kupanga,vyuoni,mashuleni, nk...

(ii) Kutotumia maji safi na salama.
Maji mengi tunayotumia sio safi na salama mengi yana bacterias. Wengine eti hujazia maji ndani ya ndoo halafu huwekwa chooni. Maji hayo huhifadhi bacterias ni hatari sana.

(iii) Matumizi ya pads za hedhi ambazo sio salama.
Utafiti pia umebaini wanawake wengi wanapomaliza hedhi huanza kutibu fangasi, wengine hupata michubuko, miunguzo, miwasho na vipele sehemu za siri. Kwasababu tu wametumia pads ambazo sio salama.

(iv) Bacterias
Bacteria hupatikana sehemu mbalimbali na katika mazingira mbalimbali, unahitaji umakini katika matumizi ya vitu ktk sehemu za ndani.

Pia unapofua nguo yako ya ndani unashauriwa kupiga pasi kabla ya kuvaa. Swali, ni wanawake wangapi wanapiga pasi nguo zao za ndani kabla ya kuvaa?
Vyanzo ni vingi sana, suluhisho ni nini? “Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba “ ni vyema ukafahamu
namna ya kumdhibiti muhalifu kabla hajaingia ndani kwako kuliko kupambana nae akiwa
tayari ndani ni ngumu. Ndo maana tumejitoa kuelimisha na kukushauri, jinsi ya kupambana na adui kabla na hata kama atakuwa ameingia kujua jinsi ya kumshinda.

STD symptoms: Common STDs and their symptoms

If you have sex, you may also have an STD, with subtle or noticeable STD symptoms. Straight or gay, married or single, you're vulnerable to STDs and STD symptoms, whether you engage in oral, anal or vaginal sex.
Although condoms are highly effective for reducing transmission of STDs, keep in mind that no method is foolproof.
STD symptoms aren't always obvious. If you think you have STD symptoms or have been exposed to an STD, see a doctor. Some STDs can be treated easily and eliminated, but others require more involved, long-term treatment.
Either way, it's essential to be evaluated, and — if diagnosed with an STD, also known as a sexually transmitted infection (STI) — get treated. It's also essential to inform any partners so that they can be evaluated and treated. If untreated, STDs can increase your risk of acquiring another STD such as HIV. This happens because an STD can stimulate an immune response in the genital area or cause sores, either of which might make HIV transmission more likely. Some untreated STDs can also lead to infertility.

STIs often asymptomatic

You could have an STI and be asymptomatic — without any signs or symptoms. In fact, this happens with a lot of STIs. Even though you have no symptoms, you're still at risk of passing the infection along to your sex partners. That's why it's important to use protection, such as a condom, during sex. And visit your doctor on a regular basis for STI screening, so you can identify a potential infection and get treated for it before passing it along to someone else.
Some of the following diseases, such as hepatitis, can be transmitted without sexual contact. Others, such as gonorrhea, can only be transmitted through sexual contact.

Chlamydia symptoms

Chlamydia is a bacterial infection of your genital tract. Chlamydia may be difficult for you to detect because early-stage infections often cause few or no signs and symptoms. When they do occur, they usually start one to three weeks after you've been exposed to chlamydia. Even when signs and symptoms do occur, they're often mild and passing, making them easy to overlook.
Signs and symptoms may include:

• Painful urination
• Lower abdominal pain
• Vaginal discharge in women
• Discharge from the penis in men
• Pain during sexual intercourse in women
• Testicular pain in men

          

Gonorrhea symptoms

Gonorrhea is a bacterial infection of your genital tract. The first gonorrhea symptoms generally appear within two to 10 days after exposure. However, some people may be infected for months before signs or symptoms occur. Signs and symptoms of gonorrhea may include:

• Thick, cloudy or bloody discharge from the penis or vagina
• Pain or burning sensation when urinating
• Abnormal menstrual bleeding
• Painful, swollen testicles
• Painful bowel movements
• Anal itching 

                                 

Trichomoniasis symptoms

Trichomoniasis is a common STI caused by a microscopic, one-celled parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis. This organism spreads during sexual intercourse with someone who already has the infection. The organism usually infects the urinary tract in men, but often causes no symptoms in men. Trichomoniasis typically infects the vagina in women. When trichomoniasis causes symptoms, they may range from mild irritation to severe inflammation. Signs and symptoms may include:

• Clear, white, greenish or yellowish vaginal discharge
• Discharge from the penis
• Strong vaginal odor
• Vaginal itching or irritation
• Itching or irritation inside the penis
• Pain during sexual intercourse
• Painful urination

HIV symptoms

HIV is an infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. HIV interferes with your body's ability to effectively fight off viruses, bacteria and fungi that cause disease, and it can lead to AIDS, a chronic, life-threatening disease.
When first infected with HIV, you may have no symptoms at all. Some people develop a flu-like illness, usually two to six weeks after being infected.
Early signs and symptoms
Early HIV signs and symptoms may include:
           

• Fever
• Headache
• Sore throat
• Swollen lymph glands
• Rash
• Fatigue

These early signs and symptoms usually disappear within a week to a month and are often mistaken for those of another viral infection. During this period, you are very infectious. More-persistent or -severe symptoms of HIV infection may not appear for 10 years or more after the initial infection.
As the virus continues to multiply and destroy immune cells, you may develop mild infections or chronic signs and symptoms such as:

• Swollen lymph nodes — often one of the first signs of HIV infection
• Diarrhea
• Weight loss
• Fever
• Cough and shortness of breath

Later stage HIV infection
Signs and symptoms of later stage HIV infection include:

• Persistent, unexplained fatigue
• Soaking night sweats
• Shaking chills or fever higher than 100.4 F (38 C) for several weeks
• Swelling of lymph nodes for more than three months
• Chronic diarrhea
• Persistent headaches
• Unusual, opportunistic infections

Genital herpes symptoms

Genital herpes is highly contagious and caused by a type of the herpes simplex virus (HSV). HSV enters your body through small breaks in your skin or mucous membranes. Most people with HSV never know they have it, because they have no signs or symptoms. The signs and symptoms of HSV can be so mild they go unnoticed. When signs and symptoms are noticeable, the first episode is generally the worst. Some people never experience a second episode. Other people, however, can experience recurrent episodes over a period of decades.
When present, genital herpes signs and symptoms may include:

• Small, red bumps, blisters (vesicles) or open sores (ulcers) in the genital, anal and nearby areas
• Pain or itching around the genital area, buttocks and inner thighs

The initial symptom of genital herpes usually is pain or itching, beginning within a few weeks after exposure to an infected sexual partner. After several days, small, red bumps may appear. They then rupture, becoming ulcers that ooze or bleed. Eventually, scabs form and the ulcers heal.
In women, sores can erupt in the vaginal area, external genitals, buttocks, anus or cervix. In men, sores can appear on the penis, scrotum, buttocks, anus or thighs, or inside the urethra, the tube from the bladder through the penis.
While you have ulcers, it may be painful to urinate. You may also experience pain and tenderness in your genital area until the infection clears. During an initial episode, you may have flu-like signs and symptoms, such as headache, muscle aches and fever, as well as swollen lymph nodes in your groin.
In some cases, the infection can be active and contagious even when sores aren't present.

Genital warts (HPV infection) symptoms

Genital warts, caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV), are one of the most common types of STDs. The signs and symptoms of genital warts include:

• Small, flesh-colored or gray swellings in your genital area
• Several warts close together that take on a cauliflower shape
• Itching or discomfort in your genital area
• Bleeding with intercourse

Often, however, genital warts cause no symptoms. Genital warts may be as small as 1 millimeter in diameter or may multiply into large clusters.
In women, genital warts can grow on the vulva, the walls of the vagina, the area between the external genitals and the anus, and the cervix. In men, they may occur on the tip or shaft of the penis, the scrotum, or the anus. Genital warts can also develop in the mouth or throat of a person who has had oral sex with an infected person.

Hepatitis symptoms

Hepatitis A, hepatitis B and hepatitis C are all contagious viral infections that affect your liver. Hepatitis B and C are the most serious of the three, but each can cause your liver to become inflamed.
Some people never develop signs or symptoms. But for those who do, signs and symptoms may occur after several weeks and may include:

• Fatigue
• Nausea and vomiting
• Abdominal pain or discomfort, especially in the area of your liver on your right side beneath your lower ribs
• Loss of appetite
• Fever
• Dark urine
• Muscle or joint pain
• Itching
• Yellowing of your skin and the whites of your eyes (jaundice)

Syphilis symptoms

Syphilis is a bacterial infection. The disease affects your genitals, skin and mucous membranes, but it may also involve many other parts of your body, including your brain and your heart.
The signs and symptoms of syphilis may occur in four stages — primary, secondary, latent and tertiary. There's also a condition known as congenital syphilis, which occurs when a pregnant woman with syphilis passes the disease to her unborn infant. Congenital syphilis can be disabling, even life-threatening, so it's important for a pregnant woman with syphilis to be treated.
                               

Primary
These signs may occur from 10 days to three months after exposure:

• A small, painless sore (chancre) on the part of your body where the infection was transmitted, usually your genitals, rectum, tongue or lips. A single chancre is typical, but there may be multiple sores.
• Enlarged lymph nodes.

Signs and symptoms of primary syphilis typically disappear without treatment, but the underlying disease remains and may reappear in the second (secondary) or third (tertiary) stage.
Secondary
Signs and symptoms of secondary syphilis may begin two to 10 weeks after the chancre appears, and may include:

• Rash marked by red or reddish-brown, penny-sized sores over any area of your body, including your palms and soles
• Fever
• Fatigue and a vague feeling of discomfort
• Soreness and aching

These signs and symptoms may disappear within a few weeks or repeatedly come and go for as long as a year.
Latent
In some people, a period called latent syphilis — in which no symptoms are present — may follow the secondary stage. Signs and symptoms may never return, or the disease may progress to the tertiary stage.
Tertiary
Without treatment, syphilis bacteria may spread, leading to serious internal organ damage and death years after the original infection.
Some of the signs and symptoms of tertiary syphilis include:

• Neurological problems. These may include stroke and infection and inflammation of the membranes and fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meningitis). Other problems may include poor muscle coordination, numbness, paralysis, deafness or visual problems. Personality changes and dementia also are possible.
• Cardiovascular problems. These may include bulging (aneurysm) and inflammation of the aorta — your body's major artery — and of other blood vessels. Syphilis may also cause valvular heart disease, such as aortic valve problems.

If you suspect you have an STI, see your doctor

If you suspect you have these or other STIs or that you may have been exposed to one, see your doctor for STI testing. Timely diagnosis and treatment are important to avoid or delay more-severe, potentially life-threatening health problems and to avoid infecting others.